Case Study Problems Perrier Essay

1. Distinguish the key components of the protection from change depicted in this circumstance. To recognize the key components of the resistanceto change portrayed in this circumstance, one may utilize the six Change Approaches of Kotter and Schlesinger.[1]The model forestalls, limits or descreases protection from change in associations. As indicated by Kotter and Schlesinger (1979), there are four reasons that why individuals oppose change, three of which are pertinent to this case: The Parochial personal circumstance happens when individuals are worried about the effect of the change on themselves and how it might influence their own advantages, as opposed to thinking about the impacts for the achievement of the business. The association recommends this of Nestles. Jean-Paul Franc, leader of the CGT at Perrier, sees the circumstance in an unexpected way. As to the company’s plan to cut 15 percent of its workforce he dissents: â€Å"Nestle can’t do whatever it likes† He says, â€Å"There are people who work here†¦ Morally the water and the gas put away underneath this ground have a place with the entire region.† [2] Misconception which advances through correspondence issues or insufficient data. The board of an organization couldn't consent to a choice, maybe because of an absence of data of the genuine issue. Identifying with this case it isn't extremely clear what is causing the lower creation at this plant. As per Nestle CEO Peter Brabeck-Letmathe, â€Å"We have gotten to the heart of the matter where the improvement of the Perrier brand is imperiled by the willfulness of the CGT. What other place as indicated by Jean-Paul Franc, leader of the CGT at Perrier as referenced previously, â€Å"In respect to the company’s plan to cut 15 percent of its workforce he dissents, â€Å"Nestle can’t do whatever it prefers.? He says, â€Å"There are people who work here†¦ Morally the water and the gas put away underneath this ground have a place with the entire region.†[3] Various evaluations of the circumstance happens when workers differs on the reasons why the organization needs to change and on the focal points and hindrances of the procedure of progress. This applies to the above contrasts in evaluation of the issue and arrangement by the Nestler’s CEO and the association head. 2. Develop a change the board methodology for managing this circumstance. In this manner, recognize what approach (es) to overseeing opposition you suggest and give a reasonable support to your decision. Kotter and Schlesinger set out six change ways to deal with manage protection from change. In the accompanying we utilize four of the methodologies: [4] 1. Instruction and Communication There is an absence of data or off base data and examination. Rather than talking about legitimately with the workers, that deals were dropping, the director utilized a type of control in type of setting the competition’s bottles water for example Badoit Rouge in the production line cafeteria, which further offended specialists. This activity was against the expected inspiration. Probably the most ideal approaches to beat protection from change is to instruct individuals about the change exertion before change happens. Direct front correspondence encourages representatives to see the change exertion. This diminishes wrong bits of gossip concerning the impacts of progress in the association. 2. Interest and Involvement This methodology is valuable when that the initiators don't have all the data they have to structure the change and where others have extensive capacity to stand up to. This is the situation at Perrier, where a distinguishing proof of the genuine issue is fundamental. When utilizing this methodology it permits remembering the workers for the difficult definition just as expected arrangements. It supports open correspondence. The association and Nestles need to set similar objectives. At the point when representatives are engaged with the change exertion, they are almost certain concur with the change instead of stand up to. This methodology is probably going to bring down opposition and the individuals who simply assent to change. 3. Exchange and Agreement Someone or some gathering may miss out in a change and where that individual or gathering has impressive capacity to stand up to. This would be successful in managing the association at Perrier. This should be possible by permitting change resistors to veto components of progress that are compromising. Another way is that change resistors can be offered motivators to leave the organization through early buyouts or retirements so as to abstain from encountering the change exertion. This methodology is proper where those opposing change are in a place of intensity, similar to the CGT. 4. Express and Implicit Coercion This is a final hotel approach where speed in change is basic. Supervisors can expressly or certainly power workers into tolerating change by clarifying that opposing changing can prompt losing positions, terminating, moving or not advancing representatives. Cooperating with CGT, Nestles can arrange an anticipated level of expanded creation or in any case the proposed number of cutbacks (15%) will be required.

Oligopoly Markets free essay sample

An investigation on oligopoly advertises with an attention on the United States lager industry. This paper breaks down the American brew industry showcase, which is an astounding microeconomic model of an oligopoly. The writer composes that the lager business is a completely full grown market, with Anheuser-Busch immovably dug in as the market head and is hard for it to be unseated. The companys status offers it numerous advantages over opponent rivalry, including significant creation economies of scale favorable circumstances. The paper additionally portrays the two sorts of oligopolies unadulterated oligopoly and separated oligopoly. The U.S. lager industry every now and again is refered to for instance of a separated oligopoly. This is a market totally commanded by a couple of enormous firms, and especially by the market elephant, Anheuser-Busch. It is intriguing to take a gander at the U.S. brew industry as far as the monetary model that portrays oligopolistic conduct. Contrasting the model with this present reality conduct of the brew business, one find that in most of occurrences, the microeconomic model works admirably of depicting conduct inside the business. We will compose a custom article test on Oligopoly Markets or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page McConnell gives a decent meaning of an oligopoly that can fill in as a hopping off point to an assessment of the U.S. lager industry. Oligopoly exists when a couple of enormous firms, delivering a homogeneous or separated item, rule a market. Fewness implies that the organizations are commonly associated in that each must think about the potential responses of its opponents to value, publicizing, and item advancement choices. (McConnell, P. 220)

College Essay Examples - How to Choose Good Essay Examples

College Essay Examples - How to Choose Good Essay ExamplesCollege essay examples come in many shapes and sizes. The purpose of a college essay is to convince the reader that you know something new or have a new perspective on an old topic. Writing a good college essay can be difficult, but there are several tips and tricks that will help you with your first attempt.When choosing college essay examples, be sure to read and thoroughly research the topic that you plan to write about. Have a working knowledge of the topic before you begin writing a college essay. It is important to understand the terminology used by others so that you will not be unfamiliar with the facts that you are writing about.Also, decide on a reading list before you begin your essay. This is a good time to go through the topics that you have chosen and pick out the reading material that you need to read. This is a great way to get the material down on paper before you start writing.Make sure that you take notes du ring the process of choosing your college essay examples. Keep notes in an orderly fashion so that you can refer back to the material later. Note the format of the essay as well.After you have chosen the theme for your essay, you will want to follow the steps listed above in order to create your essay. Make sure that you use a formal style when writing the essay. Use proper grammar, proper punctuation, and always adhere to the rules set forth by the writers' manual that came with your resource book.Many people find it easier to find good college essay examples by going online. Most writing software programs contain a number of pre-formatted essay examples that are perfect for your purposes. You can then use these types of examples as a guide to what to write.Do not be afraid to tweak a few of the ideas in your college essay examples. By doing this, you can make your essay seems more unique than any textbook. The idea is to convey what you have learned in a clear and concise manner.S ome students get frustrated with their college essay examples because they are unable to write them as well as they should. There are some resources available that will assist you with the creation of the writing samples. Make sure that you use them before you start writing your final essay.

Essay On No Child Left Behind Act - 1247 Words

In 2004, coinciding with the conclusion of President George W. Bush’s first term in office, United States Secretary of Education, Rod Paige, released an essay depicting the successes of his administration. Paige’s department spearheaded the initiative sparked by the No Child Left Behind Act, a set of policies enacted to reform education and provide students with an improved degree of learning more suited to the evolving job market. Paige brings light to the findings of his administration, presenting what he considers to be evidence explicitly showing the successful nature of these programs. Through numerous faults with his argumentation and reasoning, however, Paige’s opinion on the outcome of said policies is highly debatable. To judge†¦show more content†¦With standard grading processes on the school level, motivation for sufficient learning is advancement and graduation from that educational branch. Except in cases of completely deteriorated motivatio n from the student, typically culminating in said student dropping out on their own accord, this incentive to complete the curriculum typically maintains student motivation. The shortsightedness of such testing is the assumption of a unified degree of student motivation, especially at the high school level (Forte, 2010). Standardized tests administered to student at this age group are frequently low pressure and low stake. Because the tests pose far less consequence to the student, and motivation for students can occur on such a wide spectrum, test results become far less uniform than expected (Ryan, Ryan, Arbuthnot, Samuels, 2007). When applied to a common, realistic scenario, the model begins to break down. For example, an unmotivated student would characteristically perform poorly on a test. When the scores are returned, however, the school is still expected to facilitate this student’s learning in order to resolve the previous score, following the trend of school culpabi lity. Due to differing degrees of motivation, the test results therefore possess a significant potential for ambiguous validity, which subsequently requires filtering of test results to stabilize the statistics (Wise, Wise, Bhola, 2006). To filterShow MoreRelatedNo Child Left Behind Act Essay1166 Words   |  5 Pages1. Definition of the Policy The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) signed into law by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002, is a comprehensive overhaul of the federal governments requirements of state and local education systems (www.nclb.gov). It reauthorizes the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and replaces the 1994 Improving Americas Schools Act. 2. General Background Information President Bush has made education his number one domestic priority (www.ed.gov). OnRead MoreEssay on The No Child Left Behind Act953 Words   |  4 Pagesare being left behind† (www.ed.gov). The â€Å"No Child Left Behind† Act expands the federal government’s role in elementary and secondary education. The NCLB act was enacted January 8, 2002, and has four reform principles to the act: Accountability, flexibility, Researched-based reforms and parental options. Accountability begins with informed parents, communities and elected leaders so we can work together to improve schools. The states will measure the progress by testing every child in grades 3Read MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Essay642 Words   |  3 PagesNo Child Left Behind Act Making the NCLB Act effective is quite a chore for the federal and state legislation. The positive influences for the act are quite controversial. Accountability standards are set and measured on a yearly basis by each individual state. The educator’s qualifications and standards are also state and federally mandated. Reading, math and writing are the key academic subjects that are measured. The goal is to close the gap among race, socioeconomic groups, and disabledRead MoreEssay On No Child Left Behind Act822 Words   |  4 Pagesof Nation at Risk in 1983, and the enactment of new federal law, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) by President Lyndon B Johnson in 1965 all emphasized or established high standards and accountability within the nation’s education system. In 2002, Congress amended ESEA into the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). This act reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, affecting education from kindergarten through high school for over a decade. NCLB calls for increased accountabilityRead MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pages The No Child Left Behind Act was based on the Elementary Secondary Education Act of 1965. The act was established based on the promise of Thomas Jefferson to create a free public education system in Virginia (Hammond, Kohn, Meier, Sizer Wood, 2004). The act is now reauthorized as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The purpose of the No Child Left Behind Act was to make sure that children were given a fair, quality education. The act set out to close the achievement gaps in educationRead MoreEssay On No Child Left Behind Act1303 Words   |  6 PagesNo Child Left Behind Children are the future of this world. In an ideal universe, every child would have the intelligence and skills to become a doctor or lawyer; instead, we live in a world in which intelligence and skills are, across the board, different and unique in every student. In an attempt to create a common ground of intelligence throughout all students, the Bush administration passed the No Child Left Behind Act. Under this act, expectations were created for schools to produce a specificRead MoreEssay on No Child Left Behind Act3562 Words   |  15 PagesThe No Child Left Behind Act Alexis Cross His 324 Dr. Stephan Law February 20, 2010 No Child Left Behind Outline: 1. Introduction a. What I will be writing about b. Why I chose my topic c. What will be covered 2. The NCLB Act d. How it came to be e. What was proposed f. How it has been enacted 3. The NCLB Act g. Arguments in favor of h. Arguments against 4. Statistics i. How the NCLB Act has had a positive impactRead More No Child Left Behind Act Essay1247 Words   |  5 Pages No Child Left Behind Act President Bush quoted, â€Å"Clearly, our children are our future†¦Too many of our neediest children are being left behind† (www.ed.gov). The â€Å"No Child Left Behind† Act expands the federal government’s role in elementary and secondary education. The NCLB emphasizes accountability and abiding by policies set by the federal government. This law sets strict requirements and deadlines for states to expand the scope and frequency of student testing, restore their accountabilityRead MoreEssay on The No Child Left Behind Act1440 Words   |  6 PagesInitiated in 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 intended to prevent the academic failures of educational institutions and individual students, as well as bridge achievement gaps between students. This act supports the basic standards of education reform across America; desiring to improve the learning outcomes of America’s youth. No Child Left Behind has left many to criticize the outcomes of the Act itself. Questions have risen concerning the effectiveness of NCLB, as well as theRead MoreNo Child Left Behind Act Essay710 Words   |  3 PagesThe No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, President George W. Bushs education reform bill, was signed into law on Jan. 8, 2002. The No Child Left Behind Act says that states will develop and apply challenging academic standards in reading and math. It will also set annual progress objectives to make sure that all groups of students reach proficiency within 12 years. And the act also says that children will be tested annually in grades 3 through 8, in reading and math to measure their progress.

Theme of Isolation in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1573 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/04/15 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: A Rose For Emily Essay Did you like this example? Human interaction is an absolute necessity for the well being of a human. Despite the damage that can be done when one is hurt by another, the lack of connection is deadly. A gruesome tale that follows miss Emily Grierson in A rose for Emily by William Faulkner where the author utilizes several tools to dissect how extreme isolation and abandonment may lead a person to such horrendous crimes such as necrophilia. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Theme of Isolation in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily" essay for you Create order In doing so, death and a resistance to modern ideas became another normality in the story which lead to the death of a womans humanity. All proof of how essential affection is the happiness of a person over all. The damage caused to a person may be observed in the publics highly judgmental,gossipy,and sometimes hypocritically attitude about her and the inability of a person to build any relationships due to the isolation. Emily Grierson is subject to the scrutiny of her whole town in several points of her life. From the very beginning at her funeral the towns people gave way to several aspects of their home which may explain their society. The first section of the story disseminates that she is part of their oncemost select street and now, her once high class house had become an eyesore among eyesores. This rift that Emilys family had with the townspeople led to their belief that she was an obligation to the town. Like her house and its unwillingness to be updated Emily soaks in her stubbornness by refusing to pay her taxes. Demonstrating the lack of respect of authority for the new leaders of the town. She treated them with a cold and dry attitude that demanded respect and patience. Emily never cared for the new authorities of the town and even indicated her alienation and isolation when she for the claims confirmation of a person that passed away almost ten years beforehand. The second section divulges into her tense relationship with the town. The town didnt dare confront her about the taxes nor the about the odor coming from her house.A smell that serves as a foreshadow that there is something rotting away in her house, so much so the they decided to secretly spread lime all around her property. And yet, despite all the indications, all the scrutinization, and observations they make of Miss Emily they ironically fail to realise that she is deeply disturbed,criminally insane, and neglect the discovery of the murder until 40 years after.Once again proving that the drift she had with the town remained as deep and wide as before the death of her father. Despite their efforts to get close to her after the death of her father, her cold attitude and rejection of the tow ns pitty did nothing to better her situation. Only sunk her even deeper into her loneliness, desperation, and madness. Her father became the trauma that set the foundation to her disturbed mind. The fact that her father was described as this looming figure that scared away any suitors explained why after he died she had kept his body. Her instability was evident when the only reason she let them take her fathers body away was due to the fact that they knew he died. Her obsession with death showed how powerless, lonely, and angry she felt towards her father. She is a psychopath driven by her extreme desperation for revenge against her father and her bitterness towards the outside world. Indicating that this is what she wanted until an outsider was let into Emilys world. This short lived happiness was just that. Short lived. Soon their relationship crumbled. Her incapacity to hold an actual relationship with someone is very clear and amplifies her loneliness and the effects of her abandonment. He abandoned her, setting off a trigger in her disturbed soul. When Homer her dashing beau that was often see n with emily around the town after he came to the town and was the center of attention, altered her reality it was as dangerous. This isnt exaggerated when her behavior is further analyzed. He gave her a dose of normal human interaction. Because of her past, she was deprived of this so when he took away, that she sunk into her desperation she decided to keep his company all to herself. Killing him was the only way she understood how to keep that happiness forever. Therefore , the lack of love in her life set the foundation of her instability. Emilys home is a mirrored image of herself with a bond that ages with her. From her beauty and prestige the house that stood proudly in the most select street as did Emilys beauty. Her purity with the years morphed into a smell of decay. In the same way Emily, once young and full of despair, has been driven into madness through the rotting of the old ways and the birth of a modern era. At the same time, her aging in unison with the house and the servant become part of her distorted view on what is love.A monster was being hidden in a rotting house. And that monster was Emily herself. She constitutes the stubbornness and refusal to change. Insisting in the old ways, in the old agreements, in an old house is the very description of her unawareness of the outside world. This type of difficult lifestyle is driven by the miserable people that know no different than their reality. Why would she alter her views when all she has seen is a town controlled by her oppressing father? This is cr ucial proof that people would rather wallow in their misery than to change. With a father like hers and a lack of a mother figure there is no chance she is able to be a functional adult. Despite there being no rose manifested in the story, the title introduced it as the idea of love. A rose that is dried up and conserved in the pages of an old book she is, in the same manner conserving Homers body in his wedding clothes inside the closed off room of the house. As a young girl, suitors lined up and yet she never was allowed the chance to accept the rose of love. This deep despair that she felt when she realized that there is no happy ending , which caused her to drown in madness. The key factor or lack of love is the effects of human warmth that she so desperately needed. The caliber of her taste in the eye of the town is high, therefore Homer wasnt good enough for her. Emily doesnt care about that; she lets herself be seen with him. She actually stepped out of the house to allow everyone to determine the nature of their relationship. Her father was no longer around to say anything about it. She for that short amount of time was able to free herself from her fathers oppression and feel what a normal person feels. This is detrimental to her ability to function as a normal person. Family should be a good support system when everything is going wrong, but for Emily, even that wasnt an option. Her two cousins from Alabama visit her and stay with Miss Emily to assure that her behavior doesnt violate their southern societys strict code of propriety while she and Homer are romantically involved with one another. They didnt come around when her father died and were nowhere to be found as she grew up and yet the only thing they cared about was appearances. Fam ily is supposed to provide support when at home things arent right. Yet, here they were lacking familial love towards Miss Emily. This proves that they possess similar attitudes as her father despite that they allowed this romance. She was indifferent to this, but the truth is that if she now experienced what true affection was, then she would have recognised her family had none of that for her. This is truly saddening and her familys departure is different than all of the others because she might even have been relieved that they left. Her family saw that she had no one and yet decided to leave anyways, this must have been nothing to her since all of the the other abandonments had dangers aftermath. For instance her fathers death lead to her isolation and unconventional behavior.The abandonment of Homer lead to his murder, but she was seemingly passive to her family desertion. So her issues are due to her fathers strict rule over her life. A monster isnt born, its created. In this disturbing short story A Rose for Emily is the proof that in order for a person to have a healthy morality they must have some sort of connection anything outside of a toxic home. Miss Emily isnt a functional human because she lived in forced isolation all of her life. Inside of her house she lived in extreme despair and loneliness, slowly rotting away without any sort of human connection. The lack of affection became deadly to her and whomever attempted to get close to her. From her authoritarian father, her dashing lover, and finally her sanity all rotted away in her home. Extreme isolation and abandonment may lead a person to such horrendous crimes such as necrophilia due to the fact that going without human contact for too long may literally break a heart.

Application Of Theories, Principles And Models Of...

1. Understand the application of theories, principles and models of reflective practice to continuing personal and professional development When evaluating theories, principles and models of reflective practice it is always useful to have a brief overview of the target subject. Continuing Personal and Professional Development (CPPD) refers to the development of an individual in their professional work life. In essence it can be compared to a journey, with a point of origin and an end point, within which there a number paths and targets along the journey with a variety of career choices. In order to improve our own practice as a teacher, and professional in a teaching organisation working with your peers and others, it is vital to digest†¦show more content†¦2. Adults experience and incorporate new perspectives on previously held ideas, modes of reasoning and ideologies. A teacher in their practice should constantly incorporate and add new ways of teaching and learn from previous experiences. 3. All adults carry a preconception of behaviour; for example in a public place, which is based on personal upbring and experience. What may be perceived as abnormal behaviour for one individual can be perfectly acceptable to another person. I teach Key Skills to young adults with behavioural and emotional issues from a broad variety of differing backgrounds and life experiences. As a consequence, I constantly have to be very creative in my professional practice. Employing the three concepts of Brookfield’s critical reflection allows me to challenge any assumptions I may have and offers me the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of my teaching practice. My area of improvement was in specifically, the delivery of English with learners who were demotivated and disengaged from the learning experience. I identified that in an academically driven environment, these particular learners were not comfortable with a formal classroom setting, due to previous negative experiences of the school environment. This generated the need for new methods of delivery, which was discussed with previous class tutor and teaching peer group, problems areas identified in previous classes the learners relaxed too

Project Closure and Post Implementation Review for Cycle Phase

Question: Discuss about theProject Closure and Post Implementation Review for Cycle Phase. Answer: Project Closure Towards the end of any project managers will need to prepare for the closure. Project closure is the last phase of a project life cycle (Heagney 2016 p.34). It represents a phase in which activities and functions of a project come to a stop. It is all normal for projects to come to a closure because they must begin and end this is part of its characteristic. The project closure may take place quickly, clean or a longer process depending on the reason for closure. Project closure take place if goal of the project has been met, it is not economical and mutual agreement of stakeholders. Project managers need to be ready for any project closure in case it comes early or later. The project closure becomes the first event before project stakeholders review the post implementation. Project closure activities Once the management of the project decides to close the project all process leading to it must be planned and implemented (PMI 2013 pp.56). It should be a smooth planned process that will bring significant results. Similar to other project life cycle phase it should be planned, budgeted and scheduled appropriately. The first step to a closure process is to have a termination manager who will oversee the process. There are several activities, procedures and events that take place during project closure. Project managers organize a briefing meeting with all stakeholders (Heagney 2016 p.34). The meeting is preparing all stakeholders explaining to them events that takes place during project closure. A plan in form of a checklist for closure is created by the project manager. The checklist enables project team to follow them as part of steps during closure (example of checklist is attached in appendix 1). An inventory list was created of all resources and assets that are available and use d in the project. The inventory list of assets was useful in providing a methodology in which assets was disposed of. For example others were transferred to parent projects and others were sold for residual value. The project closure is not an individual activity every stakeholder needs to be informed and participate in the entire process. During closure all project team members, investors, suppliers and customers were summoned to a brief meeting were agreements were done mutually on matters that affected them directly or indirectly. Before accounts were closed the contractors, creditors and suppliers owing the business were paid for full statements of their accounts. All debts that the business owes are collected and banked. The human resource department was engaged in coming up with suitable plan of compensating the employees. For example some of the employees who had completed their contract were given gratuity as form of compensation. The termination managers who in most cases are the project manager will ensure that documents and records are closed, filled and stored well. Those documents with critical information are stored well in locked cabinets, while others are disposed of. The closure of works should be done smoothly to avoid conflicts and breakdown of operations. For example it can be done in stages or phases to allow organization and scheduling of resources and employees involved. A budget review was done to establish variances of the planned and actual performance. The review was done by having a project audit that covered finance and asset management. Later a ceremony of project closure was done involving the project stakeholders. Potential issues arising from none closure of projects The project closure was performed to ensure a smooth end to the project seek approval of project client or sponsor. The can be two potential issues that can arise if a project is not closed completely include: The first issue is that it can bring uncertainty among stakeholders if the processes and functions of the project continue. The second issue is that management cannot be able to evaluate how they performed by carrying out a post evaluation. The first issue can be solved by having a stakeholder closure briefing meeting, while the second issue is by having a post evaluation audit to establish if the goals have been met. The project closure phase is important in project because it signifies the end of process and acceptance of the project (Heagney 2016 pp.45). Project managers need to have a clear budget and schedule for project closure. Post Implementation Review Post implementation review comes after project closure has taken place. It is an assessments carried out after completion of a project which defines time and life cycle of the project (PMI 2013, pp.45). But is normal practice to allow time for project changes before PIR is done. The assessments are done based on three elements of aims, scope and objectives. PIR should clearly indicate what went wrong or right, indicating persons who contributed to success. Not forgetting activities and functions that brought value to the project. In project management it is important for project managers to review experiences in order to learn approaches for new experiences. PIR activity can be done by project team through audit or evaluation process with final report being made. A suitable PIR should cover the following subjects: project overall performance, technical/operative performance, techniques of project management, and organization structure. A review of overall performance was carried out to make comparison of had been achieved on the basis on what was planned. The findings from PIR process did provide proper justifications of the failures and triumphs that occurred. A review of technical and administration performance were useful in explaining if certain practice or procedure were efficient or effective. The PIR did provide findings of structure and schedule reviews of the project of which some aided or impeded the project (Crawford Nahmias 2010, pp.34). The project teams review helped in describing performance of each team member towards project. The findings did provide appraisal data was used to make decisions of retaining some of the skilled and competent employees. Lastly the PIR did provide data that was used to assess the effectiveness of the project tools, techniques and methodologies employed in executing project activities. Role of PIR in projects The fundamental purpose of PIR process is to improve and provide baseline data future projects. Many projects carry out PIR in order to establish if the project is meeting the required deliverables. The data collected can be useful in providing baseline information for future projects. They will be used by project managers as part of evidence of good practices that will be adopted. It is useful information when making estimates and budgets for similar projects in future. The projects can use PIR as a post evaluation activity that management can use to provide reports to relevant stakeholders. The team can review performance to establish whether the project did meet the goals and expectations of the stakeholders. In addition it can be useful in providing learning experiences. The data from PIR can provide weaknesses, failures and successes in which can be used to correct future projects. Project managers will need to integrate PIR in their projects in order to assess performance after they have been completed. Reference lists Crawford, L., A. H. Nahmias, 2010, Competencies for Managing Change, International Journal of Project Management, 28 (4), pp.405-412. Heagney, J., 2016, the project manager leader: in fundamentals of project Management. New York: Adventure works press. PMI, 2013, A guide to project management body of knowledge . Newtown Square: PA: PMI.

Purchase and Product Involvement when Buying

Introduction Consumer involvement refers to that â€Å"state of mind that motivates a consumer to identify with a product or service offerings, their consumption patterns and consumption behavior†.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Purchase and Product Involvement when Buying specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Involvement enables consumers to develop the urge to search for or think about the available product categories before selecting a preferred brand and purchasing a product. Involvement reflects the amount of effort (physical and mental) that a person invests in the process of making a purchase decision. Involvement creates a level of relevance to the product or service offering and this, prompts the consumer to collect and interpret relevant information about the product before making a purchase decision (Schiffman and Hansen, 2011, p. 89).Thus, it influences the consumer’s decision making process , as well as, the process of searching, processing and transmitting information. Involvement varies across persons, situations, product offerings and time. The strength and intensity of involvement determines the consumer’s level of involvement. Thus, involvement can be high or low (East, Wright and Vanhucle, 2008, p. 132). Involvement can also be short-term and situational or long-term and enduring. Additionally, involvement is often directed at the elements of marketing mix. This paper focuses on purchase involvement and the process of consumer decision making. Purchase Involvement Purchase involvement refers to the â€Å"level of concern for or interest in the purchase process, once the purchase process has been triggered by the need to consider a particular purchase† (Quester, Pettigrew and Hawkins, 2011, p. 67). Purchase involvement is a temporary state that is typical of a consumer, and exists in a process. Purchase involvement is influenced by current external v ariables which include the product, situation, and communication. It is also influenced by past external factors such as enduring, ego, as well as, central values. Thus, purchase involvement reflects the time, thought, as well as, the energy that consumers dedicate to the process of purchasing a given product.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Difference between Purchase Involvement and Product Involvement Purchase involvement differs from product involvement in the following ways. First, purchase involvement refers to the consumer’s interest in the buying or purchase process (Kim and Sung, 2009, pp. 504-519). This interest is initiated by the need to purchase a product. Product involvement, on the other hand, refers to a consumer’s or a person’s interest in purchasing a given product and the consumer’s commitment to purchase a particular brand (Que ster and Lim, 2008, pp. 22-38). Thus, purchase involvement focuses on the interest in the purchase process, whereas product involvement focuses on the interest in a particular product or brand. In the context of product involvement, the arousal, interest, as well as, emotional attachment is evoked by the product, whereas in purchase involvement, these attachments are evoked by the need to purchase the product. Second, purchase involvement is situational, whereas product involvement is enduring. Situational involvement occurs when the consumer attaches relevance to a product in the short-term. Thus, it is temporary in nature. Purchasing a computer as a gift to a student on his birthday is an example of situational involvement. In this case, the involvement disappears as soon as the purchase is completed. Enduring involvement, on the other hand, occurs when the relevance attached to a particular product last for a long period. A high school student planning to purchase a computer to u se in collage three years from now is an example of enduring involvement. In this case, the student has three years to get involved with the product offering and plan for the purchase. Finally, consumers can have a high purchase involvement in a product without necessarily having a high product involvement. For example, a person purchasing a dish washing machine may have a high purchase involvement due to the high cost of the product. However, he may have a low product involvement due to band loyalty.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Purchase and Product Involvement when Buying specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Factors Influencing Purchase Involvement The factors influencing purchase involvement includes the following. First, the consumer and his personal characteristics such as interests, lifestyle, attitude and motives/ needs determine the level of purchase involvement (Bezenco and Blili, 2011, pp. 682-708). A p rudent consumer will always explore and evaluate the available alternatives before deciding on what to buy. A shrewd consumer tends to search for more information in adverts, and sale offers. Additionally, they are willing to spend more time in shopping in order to obtain the product with the lowest price. A consumer who is price conscious gives priority to price when making a purchase decision (Harari and Hornik, 2010, pp. 499-506). The consumer’s cognitive ability determines the extent to which he or she can process, as well as, draw conclusions before purchasing a product. These characteristics lead to high purchase involvement. In general, products associated with the consumer’s image and personality normally leads to high purchase involvement. Consumers associated with high levels of apathy and hassle-free attitudes tend to be less concerned with the shopping process. Thus, their levels of purchase involvement tend to be low. Second, purchase involvement is determ ined by the product or service to be purchased. The features or benefits associated with the product will influence the level of purchase involvement (Harari and Hornik, 2010, pp. 499-506). Thus, a consumer who is concerned about quality will be willing to spend more time comparing brands with varying benefits and features. Additionally, purchase involvement can be low if the consumer is loyal to a particular brand. The amount of risk associated with the consumption or purchase of the product will also determine the level of purchase involvement. The level of involvement will be high if the product is associated with high risk levels (Radder and Huang, 2008, pp. 232-243).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Third, purchase involvement is determined by the situation under which the act of purchasing a product is undertaken (Ozdipciner, Li and Muzaffer, 2012, pp. 34-43). For example, a person purchasing a gift for a loved one will tend to be highly involved in the purchase process in order to obtain the best product or brand. Social pressures such as shopping in the presence of friends also influence the level of purchase involvement. Socially, individuals tend to be more conscious of the products or brands they buy in the presence of their friends as compared to when they are alone. The amount of time devoted to the purchase process also has a bearing on the level of purchase involvement (Benerjee, Koshy and Shobha, 2007, pp. 746-763). In this case, the available time determines the consumer’s ability to collect and process or interpret the information about the product to be purchased. The level of purchase involvement will be low if the time to be spent in shopping is little an d vice versa. Consumer Decision Making Consumer purchasing decisions â€Å"fall along a continuum of three categories namely, habitual decisions-making, limited decision making and extended decision making† (Neal and Quester, 2007, p. 56). This continuum is anchored by habitual response behavior on one end and extended decision making process on the other extreme. The categories of decision making are influenced by, the level of involvement, available time, information, and the availability of alternatives. The difference between the three decision making categories can be explained as follows. Habitual Decision Making In habitual decision making, the consumers do not make any decisions regarding the purchase of a product (Quester, Pettigrew and Hawkins, 2011, p. 67). In this case, the consumers simply purchase a given product whenever there is a need to consume that particular product. The consumers normally depend on their long-term memory to identify the preferred band (Ch ang and Ling, 2003, pp. 94-107). Thus, no effort is devoted to the process of searching for information about the product. In habitual decision making, post-purchase evaluations are rarely done. In most cases, the consumers evaluate the product or brand only when it fails to function as expected. Habitual decisions are often made when the level of purchase involvement is very low. Additionally, the option of not purchasing the product is hardly considered by the consumer. For example, a person whose body lotion has run out may purchase the same brand. In this case, the decision is habitual since, the consumer is loyal to a particular band which she purchases without much thought or consideration of all available alternatives. Habitual consumer decision making can be classified into two categories namely, â€Å"brand loyalty and repeat purchase decisions† (Parsons and Maclaran, 2008, p. 88) Repeat purchase decisions occur when the consumer buys a particular brand repeatedly wi thout being committed to that particular brand. Repeat purchase can be made as a result of apathy. Apathy is a situation in which the consumer is indifferent towards the available brands (Grebila, Colson and Menapare, 2011, pp. 112-115). Consequently, the consumer can settle for any brand that is readily available. For example, a student can be indifferent towards the brands of pens available at a local store. Thus, the student will buy the pen she or he finds in the store. Repeat purchase decisions can also be made due to non-availability of alternative brands. For example, a student can continually purchase locally made pens if the government restrict importation of pens. In the context of brand loyalty, the consumer is usually committed to a particular brand. This usually occurs when the consumer is emotionally attached to a product due to the actual and perceived superior qualities of the product (Gunjan and Amitava, 2011, pp. 430-432). Due to the high level of loyalty, the cons umer will always prefer a particular brand over the rest in the market. For instance, a consumer can consistently purchase a particular brand of soft drink until a better brand is launched in the market. Limited Consumer Decision Making Limited consumer decision-making occurs or exists between the habitual and the extended decision making categories (Quester, Pettigrew and Hawkins, 2011, p. 69). The difference between limited and habitual decision making is that the former involves a limited search for information prior to making the purchase decision. For example, a consumer who is interested in purchasing coffee may spare some time to compare the prices of various coffee brands. The consumer may also be interested in trying a new coffee brand. Hence, he or she will have to seek information on the quality and prices of the available coffee brands. Limited decision making is likely to occur if the consumer has past experience with the product. For instance, a consumer interested in trying a new toothpaste brand may allocate limited time to compare available brands. Limited decision making can also occur if the risk associated with the product or making the wrong choice is moderate. In this case, failing to search for some basic information about the product may be costly to the customer (Broderick, Graley, and Dentiste, 2007, pp. 678-681). However, the consumer may not devote a lot of time and resources in searching for product information since the risk associated with the product is moderate. Lack of knowledge about the available brands can also lead to limited decision making. With limited decision-making, consumers tend to depend on personal information rather than external sources of information. Limited decision making is also associated with low levels of purchase involvement. This is because the consumers devote limited time and effort to searching information or comparing available alternatives. Additionally, the post-purchase evaluations are hardly d one. Extended Decision Making This is the most complex purchase decision making process. Extended consumer decision making occurs when the consumer intends to buy a new product. In this case, lack of knowledge about the product will prompt the consumer to consider external sources of information (Torres-Moraga, Vasquez-Parraga and Zamora-Gonzalez, 2008, pp. 302-313). Extended decision making also occurs when the product is very expensive or the product is one that is seldom bought. For example, the purchase of a house involves extended decision making. The person intending to purchase the house must extensively search for information about the house, the financing options and the quality of the environment in which the house is located. Since a house is a very expensive product, purchasing it involves a high risk. This is because the consumer is likely to lose a large potion of his or her investments if the wrong choice is made. In order to avoid these risks, the consumer must engag e in extensive information search, as well as, evaluation of available options (Dobbelstein and Zielke, 2007, pp. 112-121). The evaluation normally involves reviewing the attributes of each brand at a time. The attributes of each brand are then matched to the desired characteristics or expectations of the consumer. The consumer will depend mainly on external sources of information to make the right decision, especially, if the consumer has no past experience with the product. The internal search or the consumer’s memory is also considered an important source of information in extended decision making. Other products that involve extended decision making include cars, and plasma TVs. Extended decision making involves high level of purchase involvement. The extended decision making differs from limited and habitual decision making in the following ways. First, limited and habitual decision making are characterized with low risk products and low purchase involvement. The extende d decision making on the other hand is characterized with high risk products and high purchase involvement. Second, limited and habitual decision-making involve little or no information search. The acquired information is often processed passively, and the consumer is likely to make in-store decisions. Extended decision making, on the other hand, involves extensive search for information about the product’s quality, price, promotions and discounts. In extended decision making, information is often processed actively. Additionally, the consumer usually consults multiple sources before settling on a preferred brand or product. Finally, habitual and limited decision making involves limited shopping time. The shopping process is normally self-service in nature with little or no help required from the store attendants. Additionally, the choice of products or brands is often influenced by the store or shop displays (Delgado-Ballester and Munuera-Allemon, 2001, pp. 1238-1258). The e xtended decision making, on the other hand, involves visiting several outlets in order to find the best shopping deal. Communication or assistance from the store personnel is normally required to help the consumer to make the right choice. Conclusion Consumer involvement is a high state of awareness that stimulates a person to search for, attend to, as well as, think about a product’s information before purchasing the product. It reflects the interest, as well as, the importance that a person attaches to the process of acquiring and consuming a given product. In this context, involvement can be conceptualized in terms of product and purchase involvement. Product involvement refers to the interest a person has in purchasing a product and the person’s commitment to a particular brand. Purchase involvement, on the other hand, refers to the consumer’s interest in the purchase process. The level of involvement influences the purchase decision making process. Consumer decision making can be classified into three categories namely, habitual, limited and extended decision making. Habitual decision making does not involve any decision. In limited decision making, the consumer searches for limited information before making any decision (Quester, Pettigrew and Hawkins, 2011, p. 69). Habitual and limited decision making are associated with low purchase involvement. Extended decision making, however, involves extensive search for information and high purchase involvement. References Benerjee, B., Koshy, A., and Shobha, G., 2007. Brand Specific Association and Consumer Involvement in the Evaluation of Brand Extension. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(5), pp. 746-763. Bezenco, V., and Blili, S., 2011. Segmenting the Market Through the Determinants of Involvement: the Case of Fair Trade. Psychology and Marketing, 28(7), pp. 682-708. Broderick, A., Graley, L., and Dentiste, R., 2007. The Behavioral Homogeneity Evaluation Framework: Multi-Level Evaluation of Consumer Involvement in International Segementation. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(5), pp. 678-681. Chang, L., and Ling, Y., 2003. Determinants of Habitual Behavior for National and Leading Brands in China. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 12(2), pp. 94-107. Delgado-Ballester, E., and Munuera-Allemon, J., 2001. Brand Trust in the Context of Consumer Loyalty. European Journal of Marketing, 35(1), pp. 1238-1258. Dholakia, U., 2001. A Motivational Porcess Model Product Involevement and Consumer Risk Perception. European Journal of Marketing, 35(11), pp.1340-1362. Dobbelstein, T., and Zielke, S., 2007. Consumers’ Willingness to Purchase New Store Brands. Journal of Porduct and Brand Management, 16(2), pp. 112-121. East, R., Wright, M., and Vanhucle, M., 2008. Consumer Behavior: Appliocations in Marketing. New York: Routledge. Foxall, G., 2002. Consumer Behavior Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill. Grebila, C., Colson, G., and Menapare, L., 2011. Analyzing Pork Purchase at the Point of Sale: the Role of Consumer Involvement. Advances in Management, 3(2), pp. 112-115. Gunjan, M., and Amitava, M., 2011. Consumer Behavior Towards Mobile Phone Services Provider. Advances in Management, 4(6), pp. 430-432. Harari, T., and Hornik, J., 2010. Factros Influencing Product Involvement among Young Consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 27(6), pp. 499-506. Hawkins, D., 2010. Consumer Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hoyer, W., 1984. An Examination of Consumer Decision Making for a Common Repeat Purchase Product. Journal of Consumer Research, 11(3), pp. 822-829. Kim, J., and Sung, Y., 2009. Dimensions of Purchase Decision Involvement:Affective and Cognitive Involvement in Product and Brand. Journla of Brand Management, 16(1), pp. 504-519. Laaksonen, P., 2004. Consumer Involvement. New York: Routledge. Mittal, B., 1989. Meaeuring Purchase-Decision Involevement. Psychology and Marketing, 6(2), pp. 147-162. Neal, C., and Quester, P., 2007 . Consumer Behavior. New York: Cengage Learning. Ozdipciner, N., Li, X., and Muzaffer, U., 2012. Cross-Cultural Differences in Purchase-Decision Making Criteria. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Reserach, 6(1), pp. 34-43. Parsons, E., and Maclaran, P., 2008. Contemporary Issues in Marketing and Consumer Behavior. New York: Cengage learning. Quester, P., and Lim, L., 2008. Product Involvement/ Brand Loyalty: Is there a Link. Journal fo Product and Brand Mangement, 12(1), pp. 22-38. Quester, P., Pettigrew, S., and Hawkins, D., 2011. Consumer Behavior: Implications for Marketing Startegy. New York: MaGraw-Hill. Radder, L., and Huang, W., 2008. High Involvement and Low Involvement Products: A Comperision of Brand Awareness among Students in a South Afriocan University. Journal of Fashion and Marketing Management, 12(2), pp. 232-243. Schiffman, L., and Hansen, H., 2011. Consumer Behavior: A European Outlook. London: John Wiley and Sons. Torres-Moraga, E., Vasquez -Parraga, A., and Zamora-Gonzalez, J., 2008. Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty Starts with the Product Culminates with the Brand. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 25(5), pp. 302-313. This essay on Purchase and Product Involvement when Buying was written and submitted by user Kamden Sullivan to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Types of Cardiac Arrhythmia Resulting From Centrifugal Acceleration

Types of Cardiac Arrhythmia Resulting From Centrifugal Acceleration Abstract Cardiac arrhythmia is one of the many health conditions that form the basis of aviation medicine. The absence of adequate information around the condition necessitates studies to that effect. The current paper sought to determine the types of cardiac arrhythmia that result from aviation related movement.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Types of Cardiac Arrhythmia Resulting From Centrifugal Acceleration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The study relied on findings made in centrifugal training experiments, where subjects are usually placed in a human centrifuge. The objective was to expose the subjects to +Gz forces, which are similar to the ones in a military jet or a commercial flight. During such exercises, the tolerance level of the subjects was determined relative to the G-forces. It was found that sinus arrhythmia, premature atrial contraction, premature ventricle contraction, and atrial fibrill ation are the common cardiac arrhythmias during such exercises. Introduction Aviation Medicine An Overview There are certain health-related problems that are unique to the aeronautical and aviation industry.[1] Rayman points out that aviation medicine can also be referred to as flight or aerospace therapy.[1] The idea behind this kind of healthcare is the need for a medicinal approach in tackling the wellbeing of people in aerospace industries. Pilots and astronauts are good examples of individuals who are covered by aviation medicine. The principle behind this field is the fact that the patients find themselves physiologically affected by aviation-related factors, such as gravity. Advancement in the aerospace and aviation sectors imply that most of the aforementioned factors will increasingly affect the persons in the industry. Hanada, Hisada, and Koichiro affirm that progress is inevitable in the aviation industry.[2] An example is the case of air force pilots. The need to develop faster and effective jets means that the aerodynamic factors will be modified. Consequently, the pilots end up being affected by some of these forces. The advancements made in aviation medicine rely on its relevance to the world of aerospace. Whinnery indicates this importance by outlining the fact that the United States Air Force (herein referred to as USAF) has a School of Aerospace Medicine.[3] Such institutions justify the reasoning that research in aviation medicine is important. In a study to determine the state of affairs in Singapore in relation to this field, Gan, Low and Singh focus on the military and commercial flight areas.[4] In these fields, there is constant development of new and state-of-the-art machinery. However, as aforementioned, the same comes with consequences like increased arrhythmia.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Technological in novations in medicine are required in such fields as aviation physiology and performance maximization.[4] Other areas in which advancement is required include the selection of medical standards and protection of aircrew from communicable diseases, which may arise during a flight. However, for the purposes of this paper, discussions will revolve around the physiology aspect of aviation medicine. G-Forces in air planes Airplanes are constructed in such a manner that they respond to the laws of aerodynamics.[1] The operation of these laws relies on gravity and how to overcome it. Whinnery brings out the understanding that gravity, as a force, is observed as acceleration.[2] The implication is that there is motion involved. Going by the arguments made in Newton’s laws of motion, it is evident that gravity is characterized by several forces. The study restricts itself to the forces exerted on an aircraft due to gravity, which is referred to as ‘g-force’. According to Gan et al.,[4] g-forces are considered as accelerations, as previously indicated. As a result, one can determine these forces on the basis of their respective weights. By virtue of the acceleration nature of gravity, the g-forces appear to multiply the weights of a given mass. In the context of an airplane, these factors tend to reproduce the weight of the unit mass of the persons in the jet. To appreciate how a pilot will experience this multiplier effect, one ought to obtain the sum of the non-gravitational forces acting on them. The aforementioned non-gravitational forces are considered as the proper accelerations.[1] Their effects include stress and strain on persons in an aircraft. In their study, Whinnery[3] makes the claim that high amounts of g-forces are destructive to the aircraft and to the people. Effects of g-forces on human anatomy G-forces cause strain and stress on the bodies in an aircraft. In line with this, the elements have a physiological effect on human bodies. [1] Hanada et al.[2] affirm this hypothesis in their study on the effects of g-forces on military pilots. Most of the components of the human anatomy have mass. As such, the effects of stress and strain on them vary. Hanada et al.[2] indicate cerebral perfusion as a major impact of these forces. In such cases, the patients tend to suffer from a condition known as G-induced loss of consciousness (herein referred to as G-LOC). Such conditions are common among military pilots during the maneuvers displayed by the fighter jets. Arrhythmias is another common phenomenon resulting from the g-forces, especially in instances where flight crew are taken through centrifuge training.[4] In such cases, the pilots are subjected to the same conditions as those of a plane in the air. Consequently, the developments tend to alter the rhythmic patterns of an individual’s heartbeat. The effects of g-forces are so serious on the human anatomy to the extent that Hanada et al.[2] propose the presen ce of specialists during centrifuge training.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Types of Cardiac Arrhythmia Resulting From Centrifugal Acceleration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Effects of G-Forces on the Heart General effects An analysis of g-forces makes it apparent that human anatomy is severely affected by stress and strain, as illustrated in the previous section. Advances in aerospace technology imply that human body will continue to be subjected to such forces to determine its tolerance.[1] For the purposes of this study, it is important to understand the effects of g-forces on the heart as an organ in human anatomy. Cardiac arrhythmia The functioning of the heart is largely attributed to its electrical properties.[1] The stresses and strains brought about by the g-forces tend to affect the organ’s electrical attributes. As a result, the heart beat is altered. Conditions of this nature are wha t are referred to as cardiac arrhythmia. The condition is not age or gender specific. Whinnery[3] points out that the condition if often not fatal. However, studies illustrate that cardiac arrest is associated with arrhythmia.[2] Cardiac arrhythmia can occur in one of the compartments of the heart.[1] The same explains why there are different types of the said condition. Rayman[1] points out the existence of four types of cardiac arrhythmia. The first is supraventricular arrhythmia, which is characterized by a fast heart rate.[1] Secondly, there is bradyyarrhytmias. The condition arises when the heart beat is extremely low. In such cases, the blood hardly reaches the brain. The third type is ventricular arrhythmias. The occurence is associated with the lower chambers of the heart.[1] Finally, there is premature beats. It is a type of arrhythmia associated with the upper atria of the heart. The ‘premature beats’ are an indication of a mild form of arrhythmia, whose sympt oms are not easily noticeable.[5] Cardiac arrhythmia in aviation medicine The aviation industry is a sensitive area, which involves out of space explorations and normal flights. The machines involved are quite complex. The sophistication requires the complete application of the pilot’s cognitive abilities. Within the broad spectrum of aviation medicine, cardiac arrhythmia falls under the physiological effects. The heart plays an important role in human anatomy.[6] As such, studies have been conducted to illustrate how best to overcome the condition. Factors influencing g-force provoked arrhythmia During centrifugal training, the participants are subjected to +Gz forces. The procedure leads to stress that affects human anatomical functions. It is evident that cardiac arrhythmia results from the effects of the G-force on the heart. The rhythms are distorted from their normal patterns.[7] It is important to appreciate the factors that influence the occurrence of arrhythmia due t o the G-forces. Over the years, aviation medicine has relied on centrifugal training to obtain information about cardiac arrhythmia. Such information includes the various types of the condition and their influencing factors.[7] Experiments carried out to determine this rely on the use of human centrifuges, which are found in special units. The most common areas where such apparitions are found include special aviation medical departments in military wings.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One of the factors that influence cardiac arrhythmia during centrifugal training is the magnitude of the +Gz. Ewalina and Lech[7] proved this in a study in which they sought to determine hemodynamic changes resulting from centrifugal acceleration and the corresponding cardiovascular responses. The study reveals that an acceleration of 1Gz is responsible of acute hemodynamic changes. The same magnitude of acceleration was found to be an activator of cardiovascular responses, arrhythmia being one of them.[7] Anti-G straining maneuvers (herein referred to as AGSM) are other factors that influence g-force-provoked arrhythmia. Ewalina and Lech[7] point out that the same has a direct effect on the nervous system, which impacts on the heart’s electrical properties. Such measures are seen as an attempt to reduce the effects of g-forces. They limit the impacts of +Gz on the electrical characteristics of the heart. Other factors include the health status of the subject and the duration of exposure. Latent cardiac medical histories give mixed results. Exposure durations increase the chances of cardiac arrhythmia, which further aggravates the severity of the conditions. Materials and Methods Introduction The current study is hinged on the hypothesis that centrifugal acceleration results in cardiac arrhythmia.[1] The research relies on a series of peer reviewed articles, which provide a detailed discussion of the topic. More importantly, the articles relied on address the issue of g-forces and their effects on human subjects. They illustrate the various types of arrhythmia and their relationship with g-forces. +G Acceleration and Corresponding Detection of Cardiovascular Responses In an experiment, Vettes, Viellefond, and Auffret[6] determined that g-forces have a corresponding cardiovascular response from the heart. The researchers deduced this by carrying out detailed studies on the issue. The subjects used were all male and individually volunteered for the exerci se. The studies were carried out in a laboratory in France. The location, known as the Aerospace Medicine Laboratory of the Flight and Test Center, contained the equipment necessary for this research.[6] The male volunteers had an average age of 37 years.[6] After the preliminary medical check-ups were concluded, all the subjects were found to be medically fit for exposure to g-forces. Preliminary tests carried out at the Central Medical Examination Centre for Flying Personnel, which is situated in Paris.[6] Thirteen of the participants did not have prior exposure to centrifugal acceleration. According to Vettes et al.,[6] +Gz g-forces were required for the study. The said forces are attained when a human centrifuge is rotated longitudinally. The specific centrifuge used in this research had a vertical rotating axis, whose arm was six meters.[6] A gondola is attached at the arm’s extreme end. Human subjects occupy this space. The centrifugal acceleration in this regard is obt ained by means of a perpendicular rotation of the arm relative to the gondola. During this rotation, the apparatus moves along the axis, exposing the subject to the +Gz forces arising from acceleration. To ascertain the responses, certain cardiac parameters are taken into account.[6] Such parameters as the subjects’ rate of heartbeat and arterial pressure were are determined. The study by Vettes et al.[6] required the stoke volume and the subjects’ visual fields to be recorded as part of the preliminary medical analysis. Each of the electrocardiographs was analyzed by means of a special electrode. The electrodes are placed on 3 locations on the subjects’ body. The first two are placed on each of the axillae, while the third is placed on the lumbar spine. In so doing, the researchers minimize the noise that would otherwise be present due to the muscle-related contractions. The arterial pressure on the other hand is obtained by means of a syphgamanomter.[6] The sa id machine is normally inflated by means of an electrovalve that is remotely controlled. To obtain the actual pressure in a subject, a curve on the machine is needed.[6] In addition, there is a microphone placed at a strategic point to detect specific noises. In the study, the researchers were able to record their patients’ rates of heartbeat using a phonocardiograph. However, there are exceptions where the heart rate is determined by taking measurements of 10 systoles from the machine. Safety Criterion The study by Hanada et al.[2] sought to develop a safety criterion for centrifugal training. The study relied on pilots from the Japanese Air Self-Defense forces. Each of the subjects was conversant with F-4, F-15 and F-2 fighter jets.[2] Such familiarity was a requirement to be part of the study. It was meant to ensure that the subjects were all familiar with increased G-forces due to the aircrafts’ high rates of acceleration. As expected, there was a preliminary medic al examination carried out on each of the participants.[7] In addition, the subjects were taken through a pre-determined duration of centrifugal acceleration to obtain specified results. The study created several profiles to analyze the effects of different +Gz forces. The data analysis phase was characterized by anonymity. The names of the pilots were not included in the profiles. G-Force Tolerance In their study, Blue et al.[5] examined levels of tolerance associated with g-forces during centrifugal training. The study revolved around subjects with an interest in spaceflight. The participants were part of Virgin Galactica crew and would- be passengers. An equipment referred to as a ‘Space Training Simulator’ was used in the study. The machine operates like a human centrifuge. Prior to the experiment, a medical examination was carried out. Afterwards, the subjects were taken through an anti-G straining procedure. There was a descriptive representation of the data colle cted in the study. Cardiac Arrhythmias in Flight and Centrifuge Simulations In their article, Ewalina and Lech[7] argue that centrifuge acceleration has an effect on cardiac arrhythmia. Consequently, their study analyzed the two scenarios in which such acceleration is achieved. They examined the rhythm balances when the subjects are in centrifuge training and in actual flight. Ewalina and Lech[7] point out that the two instances have similarities and differences. Ultimately, the research sheds more light on cardiac arrhythmia resulting from centrifugal acceleration. In the study, Ewalina and Lech[7] relied on 20 experienced pilots and 20 students. The student pilots were selected from a group of 3rd and 4th year cadets in the Polish Air Force Officers’ College. According to Ewalina and Lech,[7] the average age of the experienced pilots was 35.3 years. There was an allowance of 4.9 years in the positive and negative extremes. The average height was 176.6 cm, while body mass wa s 79.3kg.[7] The average flying hours of the experienced pilots was estimated at 2620. The trainee pilots, on the other hand, had an average age of 21.9 years and median height of 178.2 cm.[7] Their mean body mass was 78.7kg. They had an average of 252 flight hours on their records.[7] One of the requirements for participation in the experiment was that none of the pilots should take any form of medication. Ethical issues were also taken into consideration, where the participants were required to submit a written consent. The approval to conduct the study was granted by an ethics committee constituted by the ‘Polish Air Forces Institute of Aviation Medicine.’[7] The study required the subjects from the two groups to carry out flight protocols in pairs, where one acted as a pilot, and the other as a passenger.[7] Each of the subjects was required to make 2 flights. In the first flight, the subject was required to act as a ‘pilot’ (herein referred to as AF). The second flight demanded that they act as a passenger (herein referred to as PF). According to Ewalina and Lech,[7] the participants were required to take a break in-between the flight schedules. The study gave an allowance of 1 hour as the duration of time that each pilot should take before taking part in the next flight. To attain consistent results, all the subjects made use of the same TS-11 ISKRA Jet.[7] Once all the pilots had made their required flights, the researchers took a break of two days. During the break, the subjects underwent human centrifuge tests. It is important to note that the subjects did not wear G-suits during the study. The omission was meant to allow the +Gz effects to be conclusively examined. The forces were generated from the maneuvers carried out in the flight program. They ranged from 0.57 G.s-1 to 4Gz when the maneuver involved three successive turns.[7] With regards to the split S maneuver, the acceleration was recorded between 1.7G. s-1 and 5.6 G z.7 The ‘two-successive loop’ maneuver was characterized by an acceleration of 1.4G.s-1 to 5.0Gz. The other maneuvers carried out were the immelman and the one turn. The former had an acceleration of 5.6Gz, while the latter gave results identical to all the other maneuvers.[7] The results from the flight protocols were recorded separately. As aforementioned, the study carried out a centrifuge test. The same was realized using a centrifuge with a radius of 10 meters.[7] The equipment was provided by the Acceleration Tolerance Laboratory, which is situated within the Institute of Aviation Medicine. The latter is a department of the Polish Military. At the resting level, the acceleration was +1.4Gz. Thereafter, it was increased by 1G.s-1 to a maximum of 7Gz. When the human centrifuge was involved, the accelerations were set at levels similar to the aerobatic maneuvers.[7] +GZ and the Electrocardiographic Response Whinnery[3] sought to establish that the g-forces experience d during centrifuge training have an effect on an individual’s electrocardiographic (herein referred to as ECG) response system. The study involved a total of 59 subjects. According to Whinnery,[3] the research relied on the responses of the flight surgeons that developed the acceleration profiles of the subjects. The participants were drawn from the United States Air Force and the United States Navy.[3] The two training profiles developed for the study included the gradual and the rapid onsets. According to Whinnery,[3] observation of the subjects was carried out based on their respective ECG dysrhythmias. The first profile was developed when the participants were allowed to put on a standard anti-g suit. Whinnery[3] points out that the suit was not inflated. There various reasons why inflation was omitted. The major objective was to ensure that the subjects were relaxed and that their loss of peripheral vision was gradual. The maximum limit of +Gz was estimated at +9Gz. It is important to note that the tolerance levels during the centrifuge training were recorded from 2 extremes. There was the relaxed and the straining levels of tolerance.[3] In both cases, the aim was to obtain the proficiency of the anti-g element in the experiment.[3] The researchers analyzed the various symptoms exhibited by the subjects. To achieve this, the results were computed in terms of the average, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum.[3] Whinnery[3] used the ages of the subjects to estimate the results. Of particular interest was the comparison between the ectopy occurrences among the subjects. The incidences were analyzed by means of a correlated proportions test referred to as McNemar.[3] An elaborate outline of the results is discussed in the subsequent sections of this paper. The objective, as already mentioned, is to build on the hypothesis of the current study. The discussions will involve results from studies similar to the ones referred to in this section. Resu lts Introduction to the Results From the materials and methods discussed in the previous sections, it is apparent that there is enough evidence to support the hypothesis made in this paper. The evidence suggests that cardiac arrhythmia is caused by g-forces that result from centrifugal acceleration.[5] The results of previous studies conducted in this field highlight the various types of arrhythmias and the effect of centrifugal acceleration on the rate of heartbeat. In addition, the findings made illustrate the various cardiovascular parameters related to arrhythmia. In line with this, analysis of this condition in relation to centrifuge is outlined in this section. Types of Arrhythmias As aforementioned, there are multiple types of arrhythmias. Each of them has unique characteristics that set it apart from the others.[6] In a study to determine the safety measures needed to be put in place during g-flight training, Hanada et al.[2] found out different types of this condition. The findings are illustrated in Table 2 below: Table 1: Types of cardiac arrhythmia Number of Participants Percentage of Occurrence (%) Type of Arrhythmia 114 58.5 Single PVC 95 48.7 Sinus Arrhythmia 63 32.3 Single PAC 19 9.7 Paired PVC 5 2.6 Ventricular tachycardia 3 1.5 Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia 3 1.5 Repeated PAC 1 0.5 Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation 1 0.5 Ventricular bigeminy or trigeminy Adapted from: Hanada et al.[2] The study by Hanada et al.[2] reveals 9 types of cardiac arrhythmia associated with centrifuge acceleration. The figures listed in table 1 above were obtained from a research conducted by the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (herein referred to as JASDF). The most common condition recorded during the study was single premature ventricular contraction (herein referred to as PVC) at 58.5 percent. The occurrence of both Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation and ventricular bigemny or trigemny was recorded at 0.5% in one of the participants, maki ng it the least common of all. Centrifugal Acceleration and its Effects on the Rate of Heartbeat As previously mentioned, centrifugal acceleration has an effect on human anatomy. The effects of this phenomenon on human body vary between different organs. Studies reveal that centrifugal acceleration gives rise to g-forces. As such, it follows that their effects on the heart touches on its rhythms, leading to cardiac arrhythmia.[7] In their study, Whinnery[3] affirms that g-forces affect an individual’s heart rate. Table 2 below illustrates results of the study by Whinnery.[3] The effects of the forces on the human heart are documented in the table. Table 2: G-force exposure and corresponding heart beat rates Lown grade Ectopy Definition Subjects with highest Lown grade 0 Absence of ventricular premature depolarizations 12 1 5 PVC 31 2 5 PVC 3 3 Multiform PVC 1 4A Paired PVC 8 Source: Whinnery[3] In this research, Whinnery[3] relied on one type of cardiac arrhyt hmia. As illustrated in table 2 above, the study examined the rates of heartbeat in relation to the effects of exposure to +Gz forces. The analysis is based on a Lown grading system. Such a system is used to classify heartbeats with regards to cardiac arrhythmia.[8] Whinnery[3] selected a cluster from the known classifications, as shown in table 2. The experiment analyzed results from a total of 59 participants. It was found that +Gz forces affected an average of 11 subjects. The same is inferred from the data in table 2. Cardiovascular Parameters Studies aimed at examining the effects of centrifugal acceleration rely on specified cardiovascular parameters. Vettes et al.[6] posit that the +Gz forces arising from centrifugal acceleration rely on such factors. They determine such responses as cardiac arrhythmia. The said parameters include an electrogram and the visual field of the subject. In addition, the heart rate and humeral arterial pressure of the participants are factored in t he study. They make up the cardiovascular parameters recorded during such experiments.[6] Vettes et al.[6] point out that increased exposure to g-forces was followed by a corresponding increase in the rate of the individual’s heart beats. The results from their experiments illustrated that peripheral loss of vision among the subjects was an indicator of the effects of the +Gz forces. The latter is regarded as a key symptom indicating the onset of cardiac arrhythmia. The study by Vettes et al.[6] revealed that the highest recorded heart beat per minute was 113, whereas the lowest was 84. In terms of pressure, Vettes et al.[6] illustrated that increased exposure to these forces (up to levels of +3 Gz) resulted in a corresponding rise in arterial pressure. To this effect, blood pressure is treated as an essential parameter in understanding cardiac arrhythmia. The same explains the effects of exposure to g-forces. The scenario is similar to electrocardiographic recordings, which vary depending on the accelerations. In their study, Vettes et al.[6] point out that increased heart pressure was the cause of arrhythmia. The reason is that the pressure led to atrio-ventricular dissociation. Effects of Centrifuge Training on the Heart The major focus of this study is centrifugal acceleration and its effects on human anatomy.[9] Aviation regulations require pilots (and in some cases passengers) to undergo some level of centrifugal training. Such trainings simulate the acceleration likely to be experienced in fast moving aircrafts. An example of such instances involves commercial space-crafts.[5] The high acceleration associated with such crafts requires some training to acquaint the persons with the g-forces. Blue et al.[5] carried out a similar study in which occupants of a spaceflight were subjected to centrifugal-stimulated sub-orbital flight. The objective was to create conditions similar to those in a fast moving aircraft. The participants in the study by Blue et al.[5] were all healthy. The simulation was expected to provide information on how g-forces affect the heart. It was also expected to shed light on the influence of the forces on the occurrence of cardiac arrhythmia. Their study used a total of 81 participants[5]. The research by Blue et al.[5] required healthy individuals. As a result, all the participants were subjected to medical screening.[6] Consequently, the initial number was reduced to 77 subjects. Out of this, 65 were men, while 12 were women. Another batch of 21 participants was subjected to cardiac examinations to check for any latent complications. The medical examinations revealed that 16 had histories of hypertension, while 5 had diabetes. Another 5 had undergone a coronary heart bypass. In addition, 17 participants had a history of hyperlipidemia. Prior to the simulation, there were 2 individuals who were found to have severe cases of peripheral vascular disease. The objective of these tests was to obtain exact re sults from the simulations. The aim was to ensure that the findings made were due to g-forces from centrifugal acceleration and not from latent conditions. The participants with medical histories had little complaints from the centrifugal acceleration in comparison to those without backgrounds of medical conditions. However, both sets of participants complained of nausea. The same is common in cases where subjects are exposed to high centrifugal acceleration. Another effect of this development was greyout. To this end, participants complained of incidences of mild greyout. Interestingly, none of the participants experienced any form of G-LOC. There were, however, incidences where the participants would perform head movements with the sole objective of self-inducing sensations similar to coriolis. Discussion Overview From the various experiments highlighted in the current study, it appears that cardiac arrhythmia is caused by g-forces associated with aerodynamics.[10] The various stu dies made reference to centrifugal acceleration. It is not possible to obtain results from the specific aircrafts that the researchers used to generate centrifugal acceleration. As a result, most studies depend on simulations of conditions found in an aircraft.[11] During such instances, the subjects are rotated at speeds that are almost equivalent to those in an aircraft The objective of such simulations is to expose the subjects to g-forces from acceleration.[12] The specific elements observed are the +Gz forces. The designation ‘z’ implies that on a 3 dimensional plane, the said forces act on the z axis. Their effects on the subject are longitudinal. In addition, they are the most common forces that affect the rhythm of an individual’s heart when in flight.[13] The different levels of exposure to g-forces are a contributing factor to the occurrence of the various types of cardiac arrhythmia. The study by Hanada et al.[2] highlighted three types of arrhythmia c ommon among pilots, especially in military jets. The three were identified as PAC, PVC, and sinus arrhythmias. According to Hanada et al.,[2] the three occurred due to the variant levels of exposure to +Gz. For instance, sinus arrhythmia occurs in instances where subjects are exposed to high g-forces. In such cases, the resulting levels of stress are high. The same has an effect on the heart rate. It distorts the rhythm of these rates once the subject comes to rest. It is noted that PVC and PAC are the most common types of arrhythmia that result from interactions with high-G training.[14] Hanada et al.[2] addressed this issue by pointing out that the two are common in normal day-to-day exercises. The researchers found it prudent to do away with centrifuge in cases where subjects exhibited PAC and PVC.[2] The argument is strengthened by the assumption that the two arrhythmias are a normal occurrence among subjects. The study by Hanada et al.[2] introduced the element of grading the r ate of heartbeat rhythms among subjects. The system is essential in determining the degree or severity with which arrhythmia exhibits itself.[15] In this grading system, arrhythmias that are recorded at a grade of three or higher are regarded as severe. It is noted that 10% of the subjects in the study by Hanada et al.[2] exhibited a paired condition of PVC. The researchers argue that the condition is a direct physiological response to the stress experienced during the centrifugal acceleration in training sessions. The Lown grading system for ectopy was developed against the backdrop of the need to characterize the different types of arrhythmia. The same explains why, in the study by Hanada et al.[2], PAC and PVC are graded according to the degree of exposure to +Gz. An example is in the case where there is paired PVC and PAC, while at the same time single cases of PAC and PVC are noted. In both cases, the Lown format becomes vital in highlighting the severity of the different types of arrhythmia. The Lown system is one of the advancements made in aviation medicine. It is used to determine the types of arrhythmias that are permissible in centrifugal training. An example is evident in the study by Hanada et al.[2], where the system is used to sanction centrifugal training in cases where subjects exhibit paired PVC. However, training sessions are terminated in cases where the arrhythmias go beyond a specific threshold.[2] In such cases, the severity of the condition is determined by such factors as proaxysmal atrial fibrillation. Hanada et al.[2] posit that there are certain tachycardiac arrhythmias that reduce tolerance to G-stress resulting from centrifugal acceleration. In such cases, the subjects exhibit PSVT and VT. Their study revealed that PVST is possibly a major cause of loss of consciousness during centrifugal training.[15] The findings made in the current study are best understood from the perspective of a detailed discussion of centrifugal accelerati on and its effects on the heart. In so doing, the researcher aims to prove that cardiac arrhythmia is a result of centrifugal acceleration. In this section, the specific types of this condition are analyzed in detail. Protocols for Centrifugal Acceleration The findings in this study reveal that centrifugal acceleration is an important component of aviation medicine.[16] The process creates an environment that is similar to that experienced in fast moving aircrafts like fighter jets. Such individuals as military pilots and astronauts are the most affected by the G-forces arising from the acceleration of high speed aircrafts. It follows that such individuals require some form of training to acquaint themselves with the strenuous conditions and to help them bear with the stresses brought about by the forces. Centrifugal training, as already indicated, is the process through which pilots and other crew members are subjected to controlled conditions of G-stress. During such sessions, avi ation medical personnel examine individual subjects’ tolerance to G-forces.[2] It is important to take the subjects through certain protocols. Such a move is necessary as it helps in the attainment of accurate results from the exposure to the said forces. Several studies are used to elaborate the importance of these protocols as indicated in the ‘methods’ section of this paper. The first and most important protocol to follow in centrifugal training is preliminary medical check-ups.[1] The procedure is evident in the studies by Hanada et al.[2] and Whinnery[3], where the subjects are screened for heart related complications. The objective of such preliminary medical examinations is to ensure the effects of G-stress exposure are not confused with the symptoms of latent medical conditions. The second protocol during centrifugal studies is the exposure levels.[3] During the training exercises, the subjects must be exposed to varying levels of +Gz so that a proper com parison can be arrived at. For instance, Whinnery and Hickman[8] sought to study mitrial prolapsed and thus relied on centrifugal acceleration. Their subjects were exposed to stress levels of 1G.15s-1 which were gradually increased. There was also another exposure referred to as the rapid onset exposure in which the subjects experienced g-forces of 1 G.s-1. The initial tolerance level is essential in evaluating cardiovascular reflexes.[8] On the other hand the second tolerance level are useful in determining the subjects’ tolerance in terms of the hydraulics. During these exposure levels, in centrifugal training, it is expected that the subjects end up experiencing total loss of their peripheral sight. The aforementioned protocols are key in ensuring that the results are obtained as expected.[8] Arrhythmia Resulting from Centrifugal Training Overview From the findings in this paper, it is apparent that the rhythm of the heart is distorted by the G-stresses during centrifugal training.[17] As previously mentioned, centrifugal training involves rotation of subjects in a contraption referred to as a human centrifuge. The objective is to expose the participants in such exercises to +Gz forces.[3] Consequently, the individuals in such studies are observed to determine how the G-forces affect their human anatomy, of which the heart is a vital component. The contents of the articles referred to in the current paper reveal that there are 4 major types of arrhythmias that result from centrifugal acceleration.[4] The four include sinus arrhythmia, premature arterial contraction, arterial fibrillation, and premature ventricular contraction.[3] In order to categorize each of the mentioned arrhythmias, the author of the current study made observations depending on the levels of +Gz exposure. A detailed discussion is provided in this section. Sinus arrhythmia According to Rayman,[1] the heart has a specific rhythm to which it beats. Consequently, any external force l ike g-stress tends to distort the normal pattern of this organ, resulting in what is now known as cardiac arrhythmia. From the articles reviewed in this study, subjects in centrifugal training experiments were found to exhibit sinus arrhythmia among other complications known in aviation medicine.[9] The study by Hanada et al.[2] revealed that this complication is common during centrifugal training, where the subject’s heart rate normalizes immediately after a rapid heart-beat rhythm. Interestingly, there were subjects who exhibited this particular kind of arrhythmia prior to centrifuge acceleration and the subsequent exposure to the +Gz forces. As illustrated in table 2, the occurrence of the SA in the participants was recorded at 48%. It is important to appreciate that the high occurrence rate is not really due to the centrifugal acceleration. Hanada et al.[2] argue that the condition is a normal occurrence, especially among persons involved in physical training. Studies ill ustrate that the normal rate of a healthy adult lies between 60 to 100 beats every minute.[1] However, some studies indicate that the pattern varies between the genders. A normal female’s heart rate, for instance, is estimated to fall between 47 and 103 beats for every minute.[17] In men, the estimated rhythm is placed at the range of 43 to 102 beats per minute. Alterations in heart beat rhythm due to sinus arrhythmia are not fatal. There are cases where the condition cannot be detected. As such, members of a flying crew who are found to have the condition are not in danger. Premature arterial contraction (PAC) The human heart is fitted with a pace maker that has electrical characteristics.[1] as a result, when this part is exposed to external forces, there are distortions in its normal functioning. Centrifugal acceleration, as aforementioned, has an effect on the organ. The resultant +Gz forces give rise to G-stress. As mentioned earlier, these stressors tend to affect the n ormal workings of the human anatomy. The pacemaker is among the body parts affected. As a cardiac arrhythmia, premature arterial contraction is a phenomenon where the heart’s pacemaker emits signals before the ‘stipulated’ time.[18] The maker is located above the ventricles, meaning that these chambers respond to the distorted signals. As a result, the heart’s rhythm is altered by the ventricle’s ‘irregular’ response. An arrhythmia of this kind is usually common when an individual is stimulated either through exercises or as a result of such beverages as coffee. However, the same is also true when an individual undergoes centrifugal training.[2] In the study by Hanada et al.,[2] PAC exhibited itself in a number of the subjects used in the experiments. Despite the fact that the condition is not lethal, it can present itself in a manner that would require a discontinuation of the training. In such cases, it is considered as clinically sev ere. Hanada et al.[2] point out that repeated PAC is quite severe and advices intermittent discontinuation of centrifugal training among subjects who exhibit the condition. Premature ventricular contraction (PVC) The heart’s functions rely on the electrical impulses of the pacemaker.[19] In cases where +Gz forces are introduced into the human anatomy, the said impulses are interfered with. When such interferences occur, the functioning of some of the compartments of the heart is impeded, resulting in a distorted rhythm of heart beat. As an example of cardiac arrhythmia, PVC is characterized by the contraction of the heart’s ventricles before the expected electrical signal. The name ‘premature’ is sourced from this irregular contraction of the ventricles. The diagram below is an ECG representation of this condition: Graph 1: Premature ventricular beats Source: Vettes et al.[6] The study by Hanada et al.[2] points out that PVC can exhibit itself in differen t degrees. There is the occasional premature ventricular contraction, which is a mild version of the condition. Subjects who present the said condition are allowed to continue with centrifugal training owing to the fact that it is not harmful. The harmful case of PVC involves repeated PVC and Bigeminy, Trigeiny PVC. However, in spite of the fact that it is more harmful in comparison to occasional PVC, the latter case calls for the termination of centrifugal training after some time. A look at the study by Hanada et al.[2] reveals that 19 pilots exhibited the paired PVC condition. The number of subjects who presented the condition in subsequent training sessions kept on decreasing. The same indicates that despite being a common occurrence due to centrifugal training, PVC is only severe when a subject is exposed to High G-Stress over a long period of time without a break. A case in point is a pilot who travels in an aircraft at speeds that result in a stress of 5Gz.s-1 without taking a break. Such an individual is likely to experience a severe case of PVC, which might lead to cardiac arrest.[18] Artrial fibrillation Exposure to +Gz requires some form of tolerance from the persons participating in the centrifugal acceleration exercises.[19] Increased exposure and the resultant stresses affect the heart’s electrical functions. The atrial happens to be another region of the heart that is affected by the G-forces. According to Rayman,[1] the +Gz forces can increase the rate at which the pacemaker emits electrical impulses. When this happens, the ventricles contract in an irregular and erratic manner, leading to arterial fibrillation.[20] Whinnery[3] points out that exposure to G stress in such centrifugal exercises is characterized by atrial ectopy. As is the case with the other arrhythmias mentioned in this paper, this condition can be mild or severe depending on levels of exposure. For instance, Vettes et al.[6] suggest that the complication is regarded as normal when subjects are exposed to +2G for about five minutes. However, the researchers point out that the condition becomes severe in cases where the G-force is increased to +5G and the subjects exposed to the same for a period of more than five minute. Conclusion Vettes et al.[6] point out that centrifugal training, and by extension centrifugal acceleration, has a direct impact on cardiac arrhythmia. In the context of this study, centrifugal acceleration is regarded as an avenue of generating G-forces to create stress on human anatomy. Aviation medicine makes use of centrifugal training to effectively understand cardiac arrhythmia. In essence, this condition is caused by the distortion of the normal heart beat. Whinnery[3] introduced the element of human centrifuge in their study. The contraption is used in aviation medicine to conduct experiments on centrifugal acceleration. During such experiments, two main factors determine how G-forces give rise to cardiac arrhythmia. The two include the degree of +Gz and the duration of exposure. Intensity and duration are crucial elements in explaining the various types of arrhythmias. Hanada et al.[2] point out that centrifugal acceleration in centrifugal training exercises gives rise to 3 main types of arrhythmias. The analysis points out that sinus arrhythmia, premature atrial contraction, and premature ventricular contraction are the most common conditions. Atrial fibrillation is another type of arrhythmia associated with the exercises. Each of the conditions above is graded on their severity depending on the magnitude of +Gz. in addition, the duration in which the participants are exposed to the forces adds to the severity of the conditions. As such, it is important to pay attention to the degree of these conditions among individuals taking part in centrifugal training. The aim is to avert cases of cardiac arrest. Such occurrences are fatal, especially when the subjects are exposed to real time flight conditions. References Rayman BR. Clinical aviation medicine. New York: Castle Connolly Graduate Medical Publishing; 2000. Hanada R, Hisada T, Koichiro O. Arrythmias observed during high g-training: proposed safety training criterion. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 2004; 75(8):689-91. Whinnery EJ. The electrocardiographic response to high +Gz centrifuge training. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 1990; August:716-21. Gan WH, Low R, Singh J. 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